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Evolution of Chemical Thought: Alchemy Migrates to Europe - Paul Ferguson - 09-21-2026
"In Part 1 of this series of articles on the evolution of chemical thought, we discussed the beginnings of chemistry and ow it was practiced by the four ancient river-valley civilizations: Indian, Chinese, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian. The transformation of materials was called Rasayana, and the use of naturally occurring plant materials as medicine was called Ayurveda in India. These practices came to be called Alchemy in Arabic, with origins traceable to the chemical art practiced
in Mesopotamia and Egypt, modified by influences from the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Empires. The development of alchemy spread through the Arabic Empire (Caliphate), extending from the borders of India and China in the East to Spain in the West, and eventually into the rest of Europe."
https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/031/09/1285-1311